By Emma Szczesniak
Founded in 2016, Neuralink is an American neurotech company focused on both treating human disease through technology and synthesizing human and artificial intelligence. Presently, Neuralink is undergoing human trials for their device, Telepathy, an implant intended to enable individuals with paralysis the ability to control electronic devices with their mind. Although it remains under development and testing, Telepathy represents the first successful implantation of an invasive brain-computer interface with the ability for high-bandwidth, high-resolution neural recording and stimulation in animals. Questions remain regarding the ethical practices performed within Neuralink’s laboratories and the intended future of Telepathy. As testing continues, scientists and the general public alike remain poised to see how this technology will shape humanity’s future interactions.
Company History, Mission, and Goals
Neuralink is a neurotechnology company co-founded in 2016 by Elon Musk and a team of scientists and engineers.[1] Despite being founded in 2016, the company was not publicly reported until early 2017 after purchasing the trademark “Neuralink” from a pair of neurotech research professors in January 2017.[2] The name “Neuralink” belonged to Pedram Mohseni and Randolph Nudo, professors at Case Western Reserve University and Kansas University Medical Center, respectively, who founded a startup aimed at developing an electronic brain chip to assist individuals suffering from traumatic brain injury.[3] This pair of scientists was one of several groups researching the possibility of treating brain injuries using neurotechnology. Despite scientific interest in this domain, funding remained limited, restricting continued research and development. By breaking into the neurotech field, Elon Musk’s company, Neuralink, boosted attention and funding to support development of neurotech devices. Where lesser-known companies require advanced proof of concept to obtain investments, Elon Musk already has the credibility to garner support for Neuralink, enabling the company to advance beyond what has been accomplished in the neurotech field thus far.
Neuralink’s current mission is to develop brain implants for treating neural disorders, centering on the use of a brain-computer interface (BCI) to restore autonomy to disabled patients.[4] This goal is currently underway through the development of Telepathy, a brain implant that would allow a person to control technological devices using their thoughts.[5] At present, Neuralink’s primary focus is on the continued development and testing of Telepathy for disabled individuals; however, the long-term goal of Neuralink is human and artificial intelligence (AI) symbiosis.[6] Elon Musk has emphasized the importance of protecting humanity from being outpaced by artificial intelligence, which he aims to address through future Neuralink projects.
Development of Telepathy and Ongoing Human Trials
Neuralink’s N1 Implant, known as Telepathy, is a completely implantable BCI built to enable a human to operate a computer or mobile device through a neural link. The implant has a hermetically sealed casing designed to be resistant to extreme physiological conditions.[7] A small battery is enclosed in the implant with wireless charging capabilities via an inductive charger.[8] Through wireless transmission, the implant chip sends data to the Neuralink Application to decode into intended actions.[9] Neural data is collected via 1024 electrodes distributed across 64 flexible, ultra-thin threads.[10]A surgical robot, the R1 Robot, was designed to perform the implantation procedure as the thinness of the electrodes prevent insertion by a human hand.[11]
After successfully completing testing of Telepathy in animals, Neuralink received US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval in May 2023 to begin an in-human clinical study.[12] Different from a standard clinical trial, in-human clinical studies are not required to disclose trial details on ClinicalTrials.gov, the US National Institutes of Health’s website.[13] The study was named PRIME, an acronym for Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface.[14] In January 2024, Telepathy was implanted into its first human subject, Noland Arbaugh, a 29-year-old male quadriplegic.[15] The implantation occurred at the Barrow Neurological Institute in Pheonix, Arizona. According to a report from Neuralink, the patient experienced a quick and healthy recovery and was able to effectively move a computer cursor with his mind.[16] After one month with the implant, about 85 percent of the electrode threads began retracting from Arbaugh’s brain tissue, resulting in less data transmission and the eventual loss of cursor control.[17] The Neuralink team resolved the issue through multiple software updates to the device.[18] Data collected from this first human trial will be used to adjust and advance the device for further human testing.
Presently, Neuralink is focused on serving individuals with quadriplegia through their ongoing human trials. Eligible participants are required to have limited mobility (minimal hand, wrist, and arm movement) with stagnant improvement for one year with a life expectancy greater than one year.[19] Following implantation in its first human patient, Neuralink has planned to conduct a three-patient study over a multi-year timeframe.[20] The PRIME study has a primary completion date of 2026, and the full study is expected to conclude in 2031.[21] Through an extended study, Neuralink aims to assess the lifespan and functionality of Telepathy in humans.
Neuralink’s Ethical Hurdles
There have been multiple accounts of distinguished scientists questioning the ethical practices of Neuralink testing surrounding both animal and human subjects. This includes Dr. Judy Illes, a professor of neuroethics at the University of British Columbia and director of Neuroethics Canada, Dr. Paul Root Wolpe, a chair of bioethics and director of the Center for Ethics at Emory University, and Dr. Veljko Dubljevic, head of the NeuroComputational Ethics Research Group at North Carolina State University.[22] These individuals express the necessity that companies in industry disclose more information pertaining to neurotech studies to eliminate ethical issues and concerns before they escalate.
In February 2022, the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine contacted the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) to express their concerns of inadequate animal care during Neuralink studies performed at the University of California-Davis, stating that monkey subjects experienced extreme suffering due to the invasive brain implants requiring multiple surgeries.[23] Following this complaint, an Oregon Democrat, Earl Blumenauer, requested that the USDA perform an investigation.[24] The investigative report found no failures to meet regulations apart from a self-reported incident in 2019 in which the glue used to close drill holes in two monkeys had not been approved by the university’s animal oversight committee.[25] In March 2024, an FDA inspection found discrepancies in record keeping and quality control during animal testing.[26] Despite these findings, the FDA approved continued Telepathy testing, indicating that the issues found were either resolved or insufficient to warrant terminating human trials of the device.
Although allegations on ethical experimentation were resolved, scientists remain concerned because Neuralink lacks transparency when reporting on the progress of Telepathy undergoing human trials. Traditionally, ongoing reports on device testing include details focused on subject recruitment and consent as well as the study design and procedures carried out during experimentation.[27] Limited information and reporting on the Telepathy human trials raises questions on the ethical nature of the study. Additionally, Neuralink has not explicitly disclosed the existence of an ethics board to prevent subjects from being mistreated or to prevent the company from withholding information regarding risks and side-effects that would discourage potential participants. Whether Neuralink is following ethical guidelines for their studies, it is imperative that neuroethicists continue to evaluate practices and procedures to ensure the company is meeting industry regulations.
Future of Neuralink and the Telepathy Device
Neuralink has progressed to human trials for Telepathy in less than a decade; however, many hurdles remain in the process of finalizing the product and reaching commercialization. In 2017, a VOA news article brought up potential challenges that might arise while developing and testing Telepathy including the steep learning curve for patients and the implanted electrodes shifting in place.[28] In the human trial that began in January 2024, the patient experienced shifting electrodes, substantiating one of the many barriers that will slow down progress on commercializing Telepathy. Due to hindrances, neuroscientists believe products such as Neuralink’s Telepathy remain decades away from commercial use. Nonetheless, Elon Musk remains adamant that this product will eventually merge the human brain with AI, reframing human capability. As Neuralink and other neurotech companies advance, society continues to enter a world where humans and machines are intertwined.
Drew, Liam. “Elon Musk’s Neuralink Brain Chip: What Scientists Think of First Human Trial.” Nature, February 2, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00304-4.
Gibson, Kate. “Neuralink Brain-Chip Implant Encounters Issues in First Human Patient.” CBS, May 9, 2024. https://www.cbsnews.com/detroit/news/elon-musk-neuralink-first-implant-problem/?intcid=CNM-00-10abd1h.
Hurley, Dan. “Ethical Questions Swirl Around Neuralink’s Computer-Brain Implants: Neurology Today.” Neurology Today 24, no. 10 (May 16, 2024): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nt.0001022988.26412.f4.
Ingram, David. “Elon Musk Says His Startup Neuralink Has Implanted a Device in Its First Human.” NBC, January 29, 2024. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/elon-musk-says-startup-neuralink-implanted-device-first-human-rcna136285.
Jewett, Christina. “Setback Deals Blow to Neuralink’s First Brain Implant Patient, but He Stays Upbeat.” New York Times, May 22, 2024. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/22/health/elon-musk-brain-implant-arbaugh.html?searchResultPosition=2.
Levy, Rachael, and Marisa Taylor. “Musk’s Neuralink Seeks to Enroll Three Patients in Brain Implant Study.” Reuters, March 28, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/musks-neuralink-registers-brain-implant-study-us-government-database-2024-05-28/.
Press, Associated. “Elon Musk’s Latest Target: Brain- Computer Interfaces.” VOA, March 28, 2017. https://www.voanews.com/a/elon-musks-latest-target-brain-computer-interfaces/3785645.html.
Reed, Jim, and Joe McFadden. “Neuralink: Can Musk’s Brain Technology Change the World?” BBC, February 3, 2024. https://www.bbc.com/news/health-68169082.
Regalado, Antonio. “Meet the Guys Who Sold ‘Neuralink’ to Elon Musk without Even Realizing It.” MIT Technology Review, April 4, 2017. https://www.technologyreview.com/2017/04/04/152788/meet-the-guys-who-sold-neuralink-to-elon-musk-without-even-realizing-it/.
Shaima, Mujiba, Norun Nabi, Md Nasir Uddin Rana, Md Tanvir Islam, Estak Ahmed, Mazharul Islam Tusher, Mousumi Hasan Mukti, and Quazi Saad-Ul-Mosaher. “Elon Musk’s Neuralink Brain Chip: A Review on ‘Brain-Reading’ Device.” Journal of Computer Science and Technology Studies, February 23, 2024. https://doi.org/10.32996/jcsts.2024.6.1.22.
Taylor, Marisa. “Exclusive: Musk’s Neuralink Brain Implant Company Cited by FDA over Animal Lab Issues.” Reuters, March 1, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/fda-finds-problems-animal-lab-run-by-musks-brain-implant-company-2024-02-29/.
———. “Exclusive: US Lawmaker Seeks Answers on FDA Inspection of Musk’s Neuralink.” Reuters, March 26, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/us-lawmaker-seeks-answers-fda-inspection-musks-neuralink-2024-03-26/.
———. “Want Details on Elon Musk’s Brain Implant Trial? You’ll Have to Ask Him.” Reuters, February 2, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/technology/want-details-elon-musks-brain-implant-trial-youll-have-ask-him-2024-02-02/.
[1] Ingram, “Elon Musk Says His Startup Neuralink Has Implanted a Device in Its First Human.”
[2] Antonio Regalado, “Meet the Guys Who Sold ‘Neuralink’ to Elon Musk without Even Realizing It,” MIT Technology Review, April 4, 2017, https://www.technologyreview.com/2017/04/04/152788/meet-the-guys-who-sold-neuralink-to-elon-musk-without-even-realizing-it/.
[3] Regalado, “Meet the Guys Who Sold ‘Neuralink’ to Elon Musk without Even Realizing It.”
[4] Associated Press, “Elon Musk’s Latest Target: Brain- Computer Interfaces,” VOA, March 28, 2017, https://www.voanews.com/a/elon-musks-latest-target-brain-computer-interfaces/3785645.html.
[5] Ingram, “Elon Musk Says His Startup Neuralink Has Implanted a Device in Its First Human.”
[6] Jim Reed and Joe McFadden, “Neuralink: Can Musk’s Brain Technology Change the World?,” BBC, February 3, 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/health-68169082.
[7] Mujiba Shaima et al., “Elon Musk’s Neuralink Brain Chip: A Review on ‘Brain-Reading’ Device,” Journal of Computer Science and Technology Studies, February 23, 2024, https://doi.org/10.32996/jcsts.2024.6.1.22.
[8] Shaima et al.
[9] Shaima et al.
[10] Liam Drew, “Elon Musk’s Neuralink Brain Chip: What Scientists Think of First Human Trial,” Nature, February 2, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00304-4.
[11] Shaima et al., “Elon Musk’s Neuralink Brain Chip: A Review on ‘Brain-Reading’ Device.”
[12] Marisa Taylor, “Want Details on Elon Musk’s Brain Implant Trial? You’ll Have to Ask Him,” Reuters, February 2, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/technology/want-details-elon-musks-brain-implant-trial-youll-have-ask-him-2024-02-02/.
[13] Taylor.
[14] Ingram, “Elon Musk Says His Startup Neuralink Has Implanted a Device in Its First Human.”
[15] Marisa Taylor, “Exclusive: US Lawmaker Seeks Answers on FDA Inspection of Musk’s Neuralink,” Reuters, March 26, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/us-lawmaker-seeks-answers-fda-inspection-musks-neuralink-2024-03-26/.
[16] David Ingram, “Elon Musk Says His Startup Neuralink Has Implanted a Device in Its First Human,” NBC, January 29, 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/elon-musk-says-startup-neuralink-implanted-device-first-human-rcna136285. Ingram.
[17] Christina Jewett, “Setback Deals Blow to Neuralink’s First Brain Implant Patient, but He Stays Upbeat,” New York Times, May 22, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/22/health/elon-musk-brain-implant-arbaugh.html?searchResultPosition=2.
[18] Kate Gibson, “Neuralink Brain-Chip Implant Encounters Issues in First Human Patient,” CBS, May 9, 2024, https://www.cbsnews.com/detroit/news/elon-musk-neuralink-first-implant-problem/?intcid=CNM-00-10abd1h.
[19] Rachael Levy and Marisa Taylor, “Musk’s Neuralink Seeks to Enroll Three Patients in Brain Implant Study,” Reuters, March 28, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/musks-neuralink-registers-brain-implant-study-us-government-database-2024-05-28/.
[20] Levy and Taylor.
[21] Rachael Levy and Marisa Taylor, “Musk’s Neuralink Seeks to Enroll Three Patients in Brain Implant Study.”
[22] Dan Hurley, “Ethical Questions Swirl Around Neuralink’s Computer-Brain Implants: Neurology Today,” Neurology Today 24, no. 10 (May 16, 2024): 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nt.0001022988.26412.f4.
[23] Marisa Taylor, “Exclusive: Musk’s Neuralink Brain Implant Company Cited by FDA over Animal Lab Issues,” Reuters, March 1, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/fda-finds-problems-animal-lab-run-by-musks-brain-implant-company-2024-02-29/.
[24] Hurley, “Ethical Questions Swirl Around Neuralink’s Computer-Brain Implants: Neurology Today.”
[25] Hurley.
[26] Hurley.
[27] Hurley.
[28] Associated Press, “Elon Musk’s Latest Target: Brain- Computer Interfaces.”